On Syria’s turbulent history of coups Syria has a long history of coups which have defined and shaped its current policy Dr. Halla Diyab Dr. Halla Diyab Published: 26 November ,2014: 12:00 AM GST Updated: 20 May ,2020: 10:44 AM GST Font Size 7 min read This article is the first of a three-part series on Syria’s coups. Syria has a long history of coups – or “inqilabat” - which have defined and shaped its current policy and therefore raises the question of whether Syria is the state of “coups” rather than the state of “revolutions”? Over the decades, history has proven that there is no place for people’s revolt and no forms of democratic political reform in Syria and the only feasible form of political and regime change is a military coup. This is due to the overwhelming influence and role the Syrian military institutions have had in the Syrian political sphere throughout its modern history. March 30, 1949 witnessed the first bloodless military coup in the history of Syria; a coup led by Brigadier General Husni al-Za’im, the Syrian army chief of staff. He succeeded in toppling the civil government and temporarily arresting Khalid al-’Azm (the prime minister), and Shukri al-Quwatli (the president) at the military hospital in Mezza , Damascus. Al-Za’im pioneered the militarization of the Syrian national identity, by merging the leadership of the army with that of the Syrian political system, fostering the concept that Syrian people and the army were one and gradually Syria acquired a military culture. The implication was and interdependent relationship between the valiant army and the Syrian citizens. The army started to represent the tower of Syrian national strength and the citizens in return pledged allegiance to the army and contributed to its immunity and expansion. Unlike al-Za’im’s keenness on a clean coup that developed his credibility as a legitimate leader, Colonel Adib Shishakli (who assisted al-Za’im in 1949) led Syria’s second military coup in December 1951 and formed a ruthless autocratic military system. By 1970, Syria was exhausted by political unrest and the continuous chain of military coups Dr. Halla Diyab Shishakli initiated the Arab Liberation Movement in 1953 which promoted pan-Arabism, Arab unity, women’s emancipation and limited socialist reform. Shishakli overwhelmingly strove to centralize the political authority in his grip and his fears of the rising of Druz minorities of Jabal al-Arab – or Druz Mountain - climaxed with his brutal shelling of the Druz community to crush any prospective revolt to his rule. Shishakli’s insecurity about his power led him to arbitrarily arrest active officers in the Syrian Army and ranking politicians, including Adnan al-Malki, the former President Attasi and his son, and also Mansour al-Atrash, the son of the Druz leader Sultan Basha al-Atrash. Coups befall Syria This led to the fall of Colonel Adib Shishkali’s reign and Syria plunged into the third military coup in 1954. In retaliation to the brutality committed against the minority Druz by a Sunni military government, the Druz officers backed the 1954 coup and consequently the relationship between Syrian citizens and the army were doubted, bringing the Arab nationalist and socialist spirit to power. In 1954, the upheaval was at its peak and Syria was on the verge of civil war but Shishakli backed down and the era witnessed a lot of political unrest. With Syria entering the union with Egypt in 1958, the Syrians (especially the young intellectuals) were falling for secular nationalism and the Baath party was the right fit especially for the minorities who believed in its firm secularism and aspired socio-economic equality as a way to protect themselves from Sunni dominance. The failure of Gamal Abdel Nasser’s vision of Pan Arab-nationalization and the ultimate Arab union, and the growing unrest over Syria’s seceding from the union on September 28, 1961 was troublesome. The secession from the union was the result of a coup carried out by disenchanted Syrian military officers who declared Syria’s independence from the United Arab Republic and pledged allegiance to an independent Syrian army. The year of 1963 witnessed the resurrection of the Syrian army with Military Committee of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party, leading Syria to its historical coup which brought Hafez al-Assad to power. 1963 saw a monumental change in the dynamics of the military coup as the individuals behind the coup were Alawite minority military personnel; Muhammad Umran, Salah Jadid and Hafez al-Assad. Syria’s political façade was changing with a minority ruling a majority through the legitimate mechanism of the Syrian army. But the shared comradeship of the three minority leaders did not stop another coup from erupting in 1966 and power was ultimately seized by Hafez al- Assad in 1970. Salah Jadid expelled Muhammad Umran from his position in 1966 and jailed him in Mezzeh Prison. In the so-called 1970 “Corrective Movement,” Air Force General Hafez al-Assad overthrew Jadid’s regime to face the same fate of Umran and imprisoned him in Mezza prison until his death. By 1970, Syria was exhausted by political unrest and the continuous chain of military coups which erupted almost every two years. Hafez al-Assad had the cold-blooded ruthlessness of a military man and the intelligence of a sharp politician and started a new decade of nationalist socialism. Syria, meanwhile, lay waiting to be controlled. _________________________ Dr. Halla Diyab is an award winning screen-writer, producer, broadcaster, a published author and an activist. She has a Ph.D. in English and American Studies from the University of Leicester. She carried out research in New Orleans, USA while working on her thesis “The Examination of Marginality and Minorities in the Drama and Film of Tennessee Wil-liams”. She holds an MA in Gender and Women Studies from the University of Warwick. She has written a number of scripts for TV dramas countering religious extremism and international terrorism resulting in her being awarded Best Syrian Drama Script Award 2010 and the Artists Achievement Award 2011. She is a regular commentator in the Brit-ish and international media and has recently appeared on Channel 4 News, BBC Newsnight, BBC This Week, CNN, Sky News, Channel 5 News, ITV Central, Al Jazeera English, and BBC Radio 4, to name a few. She is a public speaker who spoke at the House of Commons, the Spectator Debate, Uniting for Peace and London’s Frontline Club. She has worked in Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Syria and is an expert on the Middle East and Islamic culture. As a highly successful drama writer, she has been dubbed ‘one of the most influential women in Syria’ in 2011. She also produces documentary films for UK and international channels. She is also the Founder & Director of Liberty Media Productions which focuses on cross-cultural issues between Britain and the Middle East. She can be found on Twitter: @drhalladiyab

Syrian Coups

موجز تاريخ عشرة إنقلابات في سوريا إلى سقوط ألاسد ئاريان كركوكي المعضلة الحقيقية في إدارة منطقة الشرق الأوسط هو كيف يمكن دراسة الانقلابات في الدول لان صفة الانقلابات والفكر الواحد بمثابة قاعدة أساسية لا يمكن المساس بها وتعددت عدد الانقلابات في سوريا الى عشر انقلابات الى الزمن الحالي . تأسست المملكة العربية السورية في 3 أغسطس 1918، عندما أصبح الملك الجزائري محمد سعيد أول ملك للمملكة العربية السورية. وفي 30 أيلول 1918 أصبح الملك الثاني، يليه الملك فيصل الأول (1921-1933)، وفي 5 تشرين الأول 1918، أصبح الملك الثالث والأخير للمملكة العربية السورية بين الأعوام (1921_1933). وفي الأول من أكتوبر عام 1918، شكل حكومته الأولى برئاسة الجنرال رضا باشا الركابي. وفي مايو عام 1920، هاجمه جيش الجمهورية الفرنسية الثالثة بقيادة الجنرال هنري غورو مُنحت سوريا إلى الجمهورية الفرنسية الثالثة بموجب اتفاقية سايكس بيكو عام 1916. سوريا حاليا ووفقاً لمؤتمر سان ريمو بين عامي 1920 و1919، تم وضع سوريا تحت ولاية الجمهورية الفرنسية الثالثة، التي شملت إقليم كردستان الغربي، ضمن الدولة السورية الحالية. بين نيسان/أبريل 1920 وتموز/يوليو 1921، احتلت قوات الجمهورية الفرنسية الثالثة كامل محافظة حلب نتيجة هزيمة المتمردين في شمال الجمهورية العربية السورية، ثم في حزيران/يونيو 1920 حتى تموز/يوليو 1921، استمرت انتفاضة العلويين في الجبال الساحلية السورية ضد قوات الجمهورية الفرنسية الثالثة، مع انتصار وهزيمة الجمهورية الفرنسية الثالثة لقد انتهى العلويون. في 24 تموز 1920، دارت معركة ميسلون بين قوات دفاع الجيش السوري بقيادة الجنرال يوسف أوزما وزير الدفاع السوري، وجيش الجمهورية الثالثة الفرنسي بقيادة الجنرال وبعد 24 ساعة، هزمت قوات الجمهورية الفرنسية الثالثة قوات الدفاع للمملكة السورية. وفي 25 يوليو 1920، استولت القوات الفرنسية على دمشق استولت على عاصمة المملكة العربية السورية. ودخلوا العاصمة السورية دمشق وأخرجوا الملك فيصل الأول (1921-1933) من مملكة المملكة السورية في 28 تموز 1920، منهين بذلك نظام المملكة العربية السورية التي كانت تتألف من كل منهما. وفي سوريا وسوريا وإسرائيل -السلطة الفلسطينية، وهي جزء من المملكة الأردنية وجزء من كردستان الشمالية التابعة للجمهورية التركية الحالية، والتي تتكون من المحافظات الأربع سوريا وحلب وبيروت وعدن. قامت السلطة العسكرية لجمهورية فرنسا الثالثة على كل من سوريا ولبنان، في إطار الدولة الفيدرالية أو اتحاد سوريا، لاحقاً في إطار الدولة السورية، بتقسيم البلاد إلى خمسة أجزاء وكانت الدويلات هي دولة حلب بين عامي 1924 و1920، والدولة العلوية بين عامي 1936 و1920، ودولة دمشق بين عامي 1925 و1921، ودولة جبل دوز بين عامي 1925 و 1921. قامت الدولة اللبنانية الكبرى بين عامي 1926 و1920، ولكن في وقت لاحق من نفس العام انفصل لبنان عن سوريا وأصبح أربع دويلات ضمن الجمهورية السورية، ثم ضمن الجمهورية السورية الأولى حتى (1936(في 30 مارس 1949، تم تنفيذ أول انقلاب عسكري في سوريا بقيادة الجنرال حسني زعيم وبدعم من الفريق أول أديب الشيشكلي والجنرال سامي الحناوي، ضد شكري القوتلي. أول رئيس لسوريا بعد الاستقلال عن الجمهورية الفرنسية الرابعة، وتولى منصبه من 17 نيسان 1946 إلى 30 آذار 1949، تم تنفيذ انقلاب عسكري ثانٍ على الرئيس حسني الزعيم بقيادة اللواء سامي الحناوي ومؤيد من محمد أسعد طلاس. (30 مارس 1949) إلى (14_8/أغسطس 1949) في 19 ديسمبر 1949، تم الانقلاب العسكري الثالث بقيادة الفريق أديب الشيشكلي على السلطة العسكرية للجنرال سامي الحناوي وحكومة هاشم الأتاسي. أصبح رئيساً للوزراء للمرة الثانية في 14 أغسطس 1949، تم الانقلاب العسكري الرابع على الرئيس هاشم الأتاسي بقيادة اللواء أديب الشيشكلي بمساندة اللواء فوزي سلو. (14_8/أغسطس 1949) إلى (12_2/ديسمبر 1951) في 8 آذار 1963، تم الانقلاب العسكري السابع على يد اللجنة العسكرية للقسم الإقليمي لحزب البعث العربي السوري الاشتراكي بزعامة العماد زياد الحريري والعميد محمد عمران، العميد صلاح جديد، العميد حافظ الأسد، العميد محمد قطيني، العميد محمد صوفي، العقيد جاسم علوان ضد الرئيس ناظم القدس أصبح رئيساً في 14 ديسمبر 1961، واستمر في منصبه حتى 8 مارس 1963. وأصبح رئيس الوزراء خالد العقمي رئيساً للمرة السادسة والأخيرة في 14 سبتمبر. وبقي في منصبه حتى 9 مارس 1963، حيث أدى الانقلاب إلى مقتل 820 شخصاً، وأنهى الجمهورية السورية الخامسة، الجمهورية السادسة، التي كانت حقبة حكم الأحزاب. وخلفه البعثيون العرب السوريون الاشتراكيون، وأصبح لؤي الأتاسي رئيساً في 8 مارس 1963 وظل في منصبه حتى 7 يوليو 1963. وأصبح صلاح الدين البيطار رئيساً لأول مرة. الوزراء وكان في (3_9/مارس 1963) واستمر في ذلك المنصب حتى (11_11/نوفمبر 1963). في أيام 21 و22 و23 شباط/فبراير 1966، تم الانقلاب العسكري الثامن داخل الحزب البعثي العربي الاشتراكي على يد اللجنة الإقليمية السورية لحزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي. اللواء صلاح جديد واللواء حافظ الأسد واللواء سليم حاتم واللواء مصطفى عبد القادر طلاس ضد القيادة الوطنية لحزب البعث بقيادة ميشيل عفلق ومنيف الرزاز والرئيس أمين حافظ، الذي أصبح رئيساً في 7 يوليو 1963، وظل رئيساً حتى 23 فبراير 1966. وأدى الانقلاب إلى مقتل نحو 1400 شخص. آخر رئيس وزراء أصبح رئيساً في 23 فبراير 1966 وظل في منصبه حتى 18 نوفمبر 1970م تنفيذ الانقلاب العسكري التاسع ضد جناح الفريق صلاح الجديد والرئيس السوري نور الدين الأتاسي الذي أصبح رئيساً في 23 فبراير. واستمر في منصبه في 18 نوفمبر 1970، وأصبح رئيساً للوزراء في 29 أكتوبر 1968، حتى 11 نوفمبر 1968. كان صلاح جديدي ينتمي إلى الحزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي السوري وكان يحظى بدعم أجنحة اللواء حافظ الأسد والجنرال رأفت الأسد والجنرال مصطفى عبد القادر طلاس. أصبح أحمد الخطيب رئيساً من 18 تشرين الثاني (نوفمبر) 1970 إلى 22 شباط (فبراير) 1971. وتم عزل اللواء حافظ الأسد من حزب البعث. (18_11/نوفمبر_1970) أصبح رئيساً للوزراء حتى (3_4/أبريل_1971) ومن ثم (22_2/فبراير_1971) أصبح رئيساً لسوريا حتى (6_10/يونيو 2000). أصبح الخليفة رئيساً للوزراء في 3 أبريل 1971 وظل في منصبه حتى 21 ديسمبر. عاشراً: في 30 نوفمبر 2024، جرت محاولة انقلابية فاشلة ضد الرئيس السوري بشار الأسد، الذي أصبح رئيساً في 7 يوليو، وكان في استقبال آخر رئيس وزراء لسوريا، محمد غازي جلالي، الذي أصبح رئيساً للوزراء في 23 أيلول/سبتمبر 2024، الفريق الركن حسام لوقا، مدير جهاز المخابرات الوطنية السورية، مع بعض قيادات الجيش. الجمهورية العربية السورية، ثم تم اعتقالهم جميعاً ومن ثم تم تشكيل لجنة لدعم السيد الرئيس بشار الأسد، وفي 15 آذار 2011 بدأت الحرب الأهلية السورية بين إرهابيين يسمون بالمعارضة السورية

History of Syrian Coups

On Syria’s turbulent history of coups Syria has a long history of coups which have defined and shaped its current policy Dr. Halla Diyab Dr. Halla Diyab Published: 26 November ,2014: 12:00 AM GST Updated: 20 May ,2020: 10:44 AM GST Font Size 7 min read This article is the first of a three-part series on Syria’s coups. Syria has a long history of coups – or “inqilabat” - which have defined and shaped its current policy and therefore raises the question of whether Syria is the state of “coups” rather than the state of “revolutions”? Over the decades, history has proven that there is no place for people’s revolt and no forms of democratic political reform in Syria and the only feasible form of political and regime change is a military coup. This is due to the overwhelming influence and role the Syrian military institutions have had in the Syrian political sphere throughout its modern history. March 30, 1949 witnessed the first bloodless military coup in the history of Syria; a coup led by Brigadier General Husni al-Za’im, the Syrian army chief of staff. He succeeded in toppling the civil government and temporarily arresting Khalid al-’Azm (the prime minister), and Shukri al-Quwatli (the president) at the military hospital in Mezza , Damascus. Al-Za’im pioneered the militarization of the Syrian national identity, by merging the leadership of the army with that of the Syrian political system, fostering the concept that Syrian people and the army were one and gradually Syria acquired a military culture. The implication was and interdependent relationship between the valiant army and the Syrian citizens. The army started to represent the tower of Syrian national strength and the citizens in return pledged allegiance to the army and contributed to its immunity and expansion. Unlike al-Za’im’s keenness on a clean coup that developed his credibility as a legitimate leader, Colonel Adib Shishakli (who assisted al-Za’im in 1949) led Syria’s second military coup in December 1951 and formed a ruthless autocratic military system. By 1970, Syria was exhausted by political unrest and the continuous chain of military coups Dr. Halla Diyab Shishakli initiated the Arab Liberation Movement in 1953 which promoted pan-Arabism, Arab unity, women’s emancipation and limited socialist reform. Shishakli overwhelmingly strove to centralize the political authority in his grip and his fears of the rising of Druz minorities of Jabal al-Arab – or Druz Mountain - climaxed with his brutal shelling of the Druz community to crush any prospective revolt to his rule. Shishakli’s insecurity about his power led him to arbitrarily arrest active officers in the Syrian Army and ranking politicians, including Adnan al-Malki, the former President Attasi and his son, and also Mansour al-Atrash, the son of the Druz leader Sultan Basha al-Atrash. Coups befall Syria This led to the fall of Colonel Adib Shishkali’s reign and Syria plunged into the third military coup in 1954. In retaliation to the brutality committed against the minority Druz by a Sunni military government, the Druz officers backed the 1954 coup and consequently the relationship between Syrian citizens and the army were doubted, bringing the Arab nationalist and socialist spirit to power. In 1954, the upheaval was at its peak and Syria was on the verge of civil war but Shishakli backed down and the era witnessed a lot of political unrest. With Syria entering the union with Egypt in 1958, the Syrians (especially the young intellectuals) were falling for secular nationalism and the Baath party was the right fit especially for the minorities who believed in its firm secularism and aspired socio-economic equality as a way to protect themselves from Sunni dominance. The failure of Gamal Abdel Nasser’s vision of Pan Arab-nationalization and the ultimate Arab union, and the growing unrest over Syria’s seceding from the union on September 28, 1961 was troublesome. The secession from the union was the result of a coup carried out by disenchanted Syrian military officers who declared Syria’s independence from the United Arab Republic and pledged allegiance to an independent Syrian army. The year of 1963 witnessed the resurrection of the Syrian army with Military Committee of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party, leading Syria to its historical coup which brought Hafez al-Assad to power. 1963 saw a monumental change in the dynamics of the military coup as the individuals behind the coup were Alawite minority military personnel; Muhammad Umran, Salah Jadid and Hafez al-Assad. Syria’s political façade was changing with a minority ruling a majority through the legitimate mechanism of the Syrian army. But the shared comradeship of the three minority leaders did not stop another coup from erupting in 1966 and power was ultimately seized by Hafez al- Assad in 1970. Salah Jadid expelled Muhammad Umran from his position in 1966 and jailed him in Mezzeh Prison. In the so-called 1970 “Corrective Movement,” Air Force General Hafez al-Assad overthrew Jadid’s regime to face the same fate of Umran and imprisoned him in Mezza prison until his death. By 1970, Syria was exhausted by political unrest and the continuous chain of military coups which erupted almost every two years. Hafez al-Assad had the cold-blooded ruthlessness of a military man and the intelligence of a sharp politician and started a new decade of nationalist socialism. Syria, meanwhile, lay waiting to be controlled. _________________________ Dr. Halla Diyab is an award winning screen-writer, producer, broadcaster, a published author and an activist. She has a Ph.D. in English and American Studies from the University of Leicester. She carried out research in New Orleans, USA while working on her thesis “The Examination of Marginality and Minorities in the Drama and Film of Tennessee Wil-liams”. She holds an MA in Gender and Women Studies from the University of Warwick. She has written a number of scripts for TV dramas countering religious extremism and international terrorism resulting in her being awarded Best Syrian Drama Script Award 2010 and the Artists Achievement Award 2011. She is a regular commentator in the Brit-ish and international media and has recently appeared on Channel 4 News, BBC Newsnight, BBC This Week, CNN, Sky News, Channel 5 News, ITV Central, Al Jazeera English, and BBC Radio 4, to name a few. She is a public speaker who spoke at the House of Commons, the Spectator Debate, Uniting for Peace and London’s Frontline Club. She has worked in Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Syria and is an expert on the Middle East and Islamic culture. As a highly successful drama writer, she has been dubbed ‘one of the most influential women in Syria’ in 2011. She also produces documentary films for UK and international channels. She is also the Founder & Director of Liberty Media Productions which focuses on cross-cultural issues between Britain and the Middle East. She can be found on Twitter: @drhalladiyab